are lebanese descendants of phoenicians

t "year" for earlier */sant/.[30]. [9] However, the very slight differences in language and the insufficient records of the time make it unclear whether Phoenician formed a separate and united dialect or was merely a superficially defined part of a broader language continuum. Thus disappeared the literature of the people who taught a large portion of the earth's population to write. The first large-scale mining operations probably occurred in Cyprus, principally for copper. Genetic research from 2017 showed that "present-day Lebanese derive most of their ancestry from a Canaanite-related population, which therefore implies substantial genetic continuity in the Levant since at least the Bronze Age" based on ancient DNA samples from skeletons found in modern-day Lebanon. by Alan S. Kaye. A new genetic study proves the modern-day Lebanese are descendants of the ancient Canaanites (Phoenicians). [45] Phoenician hacksilver dated to this period bears lead isotope ratios matching ores in Sardinia and Spain, indicating the extent of Phoenician trade networks. [123]. Ancient DNA reveals Phoenician tracks in the Mediterranean Latin, the language of the soldiers and administrators, in turn fell before Greek, the language of letters of the eastern Mediterranean, by the 5th century ce. There is a special preposited marker of a definite object yt (/iyyt/? 562 BC). Jongeling, K., Robert M. Kerr. The earliest verified relationship appears to have begun with the Minoan civilization on Crete (19501450 BC), which together with the Mycenaean civilization (16001100 BC) is considered the progenitor of classical Greece. Later, mostly after the destruction of Carthage in the so-called "Neo-Punic" inscriptions, that was supplemented by a system in which ww denoted [u], yd denoted [i], 'lep denoted [e] and [o], ayin denoted [a][16] and h and t could also be used to signify [a]. Polybius recounts how the Seleucid King Demetrius I escaped from Rome by boarding a Carthaginian ship that was delivering goods to Tyre. Lebanon - Phoenicians, Assyrian Empire, and Roman Empire Tubb, Jonathan N. (1998), "Canaanites" (British Museum People of the Past). [52][55], The Phoenicians remained a core asset to the Achaemenid Empire, particularly for their prowess in maritime technology and navigation;[52] they furnished the bulk of the Persian fleet during the Greco-Persian Wars of the late fifth century BC. The Babylonians, formerly vassals of the Assyrians, took advantage of the empire's collapse and rebelled, quickly establishing the Neo-Babylonian Empire in its place. [28] The name Phoenicians, like Latin Poen (adj. Auflange P.171, Segert, Stanislav. Jews and Arabs Descended from Canaanites P.126, , .. However, by the early Iron Age (roughly 1300 BC), they had emerged as distinct people. Nouns precede their modifiers, such as adjectives and possessors. Imprisonment was rare, with fines, exile, punishment, and execution the main remedies. 2005. Since little has survived of Phoenician records or literature, most of what is known about their origins and history comes from the accounts of other civilizations and inferences from their material culture excavated throughout the Mediterranean. Homer's Iliad, which was composed during this period, references the quality of Phoenician clothing and metal goods. By 738 BC, most of the Levant, including northern Phoenicia, were annexed; only Tyre and Byblos, the most powerful city-states, remained tributary states outside of direct Assyrian control. To facilitate their commercial ventures, the Phoenicians established numerous colonies and trading posts along the coasts of the Mediterranean. [41], The first known account of the Phoenicians relates to the conquests of Pharaoh Thutmose III (14791425 BC). Pierre Zalloua, study senior-author and geneticist at the Lebanese American University, Byblos, Lebanon, and his team analyzed 10 samples of ancient DNA (aDNA) found in teeth from Phoenician tombs in Monte Sirai, Sardinia (c. 700 - 400 BCE) and four samples from pre-Phoenician (ca. Ancient DNA of Phoenician remains indicates discontinuity in the Cioffi, Robert L., "A Palm Tree, a Colour and a Mythical Bird" (review of Josephine Quinn, Silva, Digenes. They ascribe Phoenicianism to sectarian influences on Lebanese culture and the attempt by Lebanese Maronites to distance themselves from Arab culture and traditions. [131][132], The Phoenicians made votive offerings to their gods, namely in the form of figurines and pottery vessels. From elsewhere, they obtained other materials, perhaps the most crucial being silver, mostly from Sardinia and the Iberian Peninsula. P.12-14. Unable to rely solely on this limited resource, the Phoenicians developed an industrial base manufacturing a variety of goods for both everyday and luxury use. [103][62], In the fourth century BC, when the armies of Alexander the Great approached Tyre, they were met not by its King but by representatives of the commonwealth of the city. The researchers analysed. This was typically implemented through the founding of new cities, the settlement of a Macedonian or Greek urban elite, and the alteration of native place names to Greek. Aramaeanism, Assyrianism, Greater Syrian nationalism, Kurdish nationalism, Berberism, Pharaonism, Phoenicianism.[13]. the C-stem (functioning as a causative): the original *ha- prefix has produced *yi- rather than the Hebrew *hi-. It capitulated after a roughly seven month siege, during which many of its citizens fled to Carthage. The forms were apparently /yipil/ in the suffix conjugation (, Fox, Joshua. The most conspicuous vocalic development in Phoenician is the so-called Canaanite shift, shared by Biblical Hebrew, but going further in Phoenician. Laws were implemented by the state and were the responsibility of the ruler and certain designated officials. [46], By the tenth century BC, Tyre rose to become the richest and most powerful Phoenician city-state, particularly during the reign of Hiram I (c. 969936 BC). Canaanites are a group of ancient Semitic-speaking peoples that emerged in the Levant in at least the third millennium BC. [33], Nouns are marked for gender (masculine and feminine), number (singular, plural and vestiges of the dual) and state (absolute and construct, the latter being nouns that are followed by their possessors) and also have the category definiteness. Carthage would grow into a multi-ethnic empire spanning North Africa, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, the Balearic Islands, and southern Iberia, but would ultimately be destroyed by Rome in the Punic Wars (264146 BC) before being rebuilt as a Roman city. However, unlike most Semitic languages, Phoenician preserved (or, possibly, re-introduced) numerous uniconsonantal and biconsonantal roots seen in Proto-Afro-Asiatic: compare the verbs kn "to be" vs Arabic kwn, mt "to die" vs Hebrew and Arabic / mwt and sr "to remove" vs Hebrew srr. [10] Phoenician settlement was primarily concentrated in Cyprus, Sicily, Sardinia, Malta, northwest Africa, the Balearic Islands, and southern Iberia. [7][8] According to some sources, Phoenician developed into distinct Tyro-Sidonian and Byblian dialects. By this account, the Tyro-Sidonian dialect, from which the Punic language eventually emerged, spread across the Mediterranean through trade and colonization, whereas the ancient dialect of Byblos, known from a corpus of only a few dozen extant inscriptions, played no expansionary role. As with most aspects of Phoenician civilization, there are few records of their military or approach to warfare. 2007. In Virgil's epic poem, the Aeneid, Dido is described as having been the co-ruler of Tyre, using cleverness to escape the tyranny of her brother Pygmalion and to secure an ideal site for Carthage. 2009. Phoenician and Punic Morphology. Among political parties professing Phoenicianism is the Kataeb Party,[9] a Lebanese nationalist party in the March 14 Alliance. However, Hellenisation was not enforced most of the time and was just a language of administration until his death. [116][117] Religious rites were primarily for city-state purposes; payment of taxes by citizens was considered in the category of religious sacrifices. The researchers suggested that the proposed genetic signature stemmed from "a common source of related lineages rooted in Lebanon". The case endings in general must have been lost between the 9th century BC and the 7th century BC: the personal name rendered in Akkadian as ma-ti-nu-ba-a-li "Gift of Baal", with the case endings -u and -i, was written ma-ta-an-baa-al (likely Phoenician spelling *) two centuries later. The idea of "Descendants of Phoenicians" is relatively new. Phoenicians of the Pacific: Lebanese and Other Middle Easterners in The Story of Africa| BBC World Service "A Sequence of Vowel Shifts in Phoenician and Other Languages. 2nd masc. The remnants of self-cleaning artificial harbors have been discovered in Sidon, Tyre, Atlit, and Acre. w /-w/), h /-aha()/ for the feminine singular and hm /-hum(ma)/ for the masculine plural. These were compiled in Wilhelm Gesenius's Scripturae linguaeque Phoeniciae monumenta, which comprised all that was known of Phoenician by scholars at that time. [19][20]: The system reflected in the abjad above is the product of several mergers. Next, from Canaanite to Phoenician, the sibilants * and * were merged as *, * and * were merged as , and * and * were merged as *. l- could also introduce vocatives. Men could often deflect punishment to their wives, children, or slaves, even having them serve their sentence in their place. In addition to their many inscriptions, the Phoenicians are believed to have left numerous other types of written sources, but most have not survived..mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 40px}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;padding-left:1.6em;margin-top:0}, The Phoenician alphabetic script was easy to write on papyrus or parchment sheets, and the use of these materials explains why virtually no Phoenician writings no history, no trading records have come down to us. If true, this may suggest that cases were still distinguished to some degree in other forms as well. For example, the copula verb "to be" is kn (as in Arabic, as opposed to Hebrew and Aramaic hyh) and the verb "to do" is pl (as in Aramaic pl and Arabic fl, as opposed to Hebrew h, though in Hebrew pl has the similar meaning "to act"). The Phoenicians were a Semitic-speaking people of somewhat unknown origin who emerged in the Levant around 3000 BC. Their wealth, power, and accomplishments were usually conveyed through ornate sarcophagi, like that of Ahiram of Byblos. . One-third Of Maltese found to have ancient Phoenician DNA By the end of the century, the Assyrians had been weakened by successive revolts, which led to their destruction by the Median Empire. [12], Phoenician was written with the Phoenician script, an abjad (consonantary) originating from the Proto-Canaanite alphabet that also became the basis for the Greek alphabet and, via an Etruscan adaptation, the Latin alphabet. The Canaanite-Phoenician alphabet consists of 22 letters, all consonants (and is thus strictly an abjad). [10] Phoenicians did not refer themselves as such but rather are thought to have referred to themselves as "Kenaani", meaning Canaanites. Historian Rola El-Husseini sees Phoenicianism as an origin myth;[1] others note how it disregards the Arab cultural and linguistic influence on the Lebanese. Bahrain in the Graeco-Roman World", "Continuity and Admixture in the Last Five Millennia of Levantine History from Ancient Canaanite and Present-Day Lebanese Genome Sequences", "Lebanon Assyrian and Babylonian domination of Phoenicia", "Tyre in the Early Persian Period (539-486 B.C.E. Geographer and historian Jack Keilo criticized Phoenicianist claims as anachronistic, noting that "Phoenicians" and "Phoenicia" only existed in the Greek context and under the Roman Empire. There is some evidence for remains of the Proto-Semitic genitive grammatical case as well. Do the Lebanese Share a Phoenician Heritage? - Culture Trip r w nm for "twelve". Marzeh held banquets for their membership on festival days, and many developed into elite fraternities. [29], Stress-dependent vowel changes indicate that stress was probably mostly final, as in Biblical Hebrew. [17], Many scholars and historians, including as Kamal Salibi, Albert Hourani and Amin Al-Rihani, have criticized Phoenicianism for historical inaccuracies.[17]. Phoenicianism embraces Phoenicia as an alternative cultural foundation by overlooking 850 years of Arabisation. Position The Phoenicians came to prominence in the mid-12th century BC, following the decline of most major cultures in the Late Bronze Age collapse. [79] They have crafted goods to appeal to particular trading partners, distinguishing not only different cultures but even socioeconomic status classes. /atta()/ t [110] Large sculptures were rare; figurines were more common. Sardinia may have been colonized almost exclusively for its mineral resources; Phoenician settlements were concentrated in the southern parts of the island, close to sources of copper and lead. Mysterious Canaanite people were ancestors of modern Lebanese - Nature "Young Phoenicians" and the Quest for a Lebanese Language - JSTOR The Punic form of the script gradually developed somewhat different and more cursive letter shapes; in the 3rd century BC, it also began to exhibit a tendency to mark the presence of vowels, especially final vowels, with an aleph or sometimes an ayin. [62], Alexander's empire had a Hellenization policy, whereby Hellenic culture, religion, and sometimes language were spread or imposed across conquered peoples. In addition, according to some research, the same written forms of the enclitics that are attested after vowels are also found after a singular noun in what must have been the genitive case (which ended in /-i/, whereas the plural version ended in /-/). The earliest sense of a modern Lebanese identity is to be found in the writings of historians in the early nineteenth century, when, under the emirate of the Shihabs, a Lebanese identity emerged, "separate and distinct from the rest of Syria, bringing the Maronites and Druzes, along with its other Christian and Muslim sects, under one government. Ancient mitogenomes of Phoenicians from Sardinia and Lebanon: A story DNA reveals that modern Lebanese are direct descendants of ancient Canaanites Despite tumultuous history, there has been substantial genetic continuity in the Near East across the past 3,000 to 4,000 years European additions to Lebanese ancestry occurred around 3,750-2,170 years ago Study also provides clues about ancient Phoenicians [10] Specialized goods were designed specifically for wealthier clientele, including ivory reliefs and plaques, carved clam shells, sculpted amber, and finely detailed and painted ostrich eggs. On land they were renowned temple builders, including of the First Temple, the Temple of Solomon. Sometime between 1200 and 1150 BC, the Late Bronze Age collapse severely weakened or destroyed most civilizations in the region, including the Egyptians and Hittites. Piles of scoria and copper ingots, which appear to predate Roman occupation, suggest the Phoenicians mined and processed metals on the island. [26] The exonym was evidently borrowed into Greek as phonix, which meant variably "Phoenician person", "Tyrian purple, crimson" or "date palm." Such festival groups may also have composed the voting cohort for selecting members of the city-state's Assembly. A Lebanese genetic scientist who has been following the genetic footprint of the ancient Phoenician civilisation across the Mediterranean for the last five years has found that close to one-third of modern-day Maltese share a genetic link with the ancient Phoenicians. Phoenicianism: The Formation of an Identity in Lebanon in 1920 - JSTOR DNA tests prove Lebanese are direct descendants of ancient Phoenicians (French), This page was last edited on 30 May 2023, at 12:57. The Phoenicians, one of the great ancient civilizations, brought together East and West; they linked Asia, Europe and Africa through their trade networks and settlements, and they created the ancestral alphabet to most of the Western world today. Ancient Semitic language of Mediterranean, As in other Semitic languages, the Phoenician plain voiceless obstruent series was, Holmstedt, Robert (2017), "Phoenician" in. The King was considered a representative of the gods and carried many obligations and duties concerning religious processions and rituals. /hua/ h, also [hy] (?) Punic was still spoken in the fifth century AD and known to St. Augustine of Hippo. The interrogative pronouns are /miya/ or perhaps /mi/ my "who" and /mu/ m "what". They became the leading source of glassware in antiquity, shipping thousands of flasks, beads, and other glass objects across the Mediterranean. The lead researcher commented, "Whether you take a Christian village in the north of Lebanon or a Muslim village in the south, the DNA make-up of its residents is likely to be identical . [113], Phoenician art appears to have been indelibly tied to Phoenician commercial interests. Ghassulian itself developed from the Circum-Arabian Nomadic Pastoral Complex, which in turn developed from a fusion of their ancestral Natufian and Harifian cultures with Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) farming cultures, practicing the domestication of animals during the 8.2 kiloyear event, which led to the Neolithic Revolution in the Levant. /-am/ m (a.V. Once his realm reached its largest territorial extent, Ithobaal declared himself "King of the Sidonians," a title that would be used by his successors and mentioned in both Greek and Jewish accounts. 1st: /-/ , also y (a.V. [57] Nevertheless, they were harshly punished by the Persian King following his defeat at the Battle of Salamis, which he blamed on Phoenician cowardice and incompetence.[58]. [121] Special sites known as "Tophets" were allegedly used by the Phoenicians "to burn their sons and their daughters in the fire," and are condemned by Yahweh in the Hebrew Bible, particularly in Jeremiah 7:3032, and in 2nd Kings 23:10 and 17:17. [21][22], Being a society of independent city-states, the Phoenicians apparently did not have a term to denote the land of Phoenicia as a whole;[23] instead, demonyms were often derived from the name of the city an individual hailed from (e.g., Sidonian for Sidon, Tyrian for Tyre, etc.) [citation needed] The Phoenicians are also credited with inventing the trireme, which was regarded as the most advanced and powerful vessel in the ancient Mediterranean world, and was eventually adopted by the Greeks. [14] ". Phoenician belongs to the Canaanite languages and as such is quite similar to Biblical Hebrew and other languages of the group, at least in its early stages and therefore mutually intelligible with them. In Morphologies of Asia and Philippines Morphologies of Asia and Africa. Negative commands or prohibitions are expressed with l (/al/). Phoenician and the Eastern Canaanite Languages", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phoenician_language&oldid=1161998974, Languages attested from the 11th century BC, Languages with own distinct writing systems, Articles with incomplete citations from December 2021, Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from December 2021, Language articles with unreferenced extinction date, Articles containing Phoenician-language text, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 4.0, attested in Canaan proper from the 12th century BC to the 2nd century AD, the N-stem (functioning as a passive), e.g. [citation needed] Formal alliances between city-states were rare. Few colonies had more than 1,000 inhabitants; only Carthage and some nearby settlements in the western Mediterranean would grow larger. P.105 ff. P.3. 3rd fem. 2009. A study based on DNA analysis published this week, reveals that more than 90 percent of the genetic ancestry of the modern-day Lebanese population comes from the ancient people, commonly known from biblical accounts. Hackett[21] vs Segert[25] and Lyavdansky). Later, Punic inscriptions began to be written in the Latin alphabet, which also indicated the vowels. The wine trade with Egypt is vividly documented by shipwrecks discovered in 1997 in the open sea 50 kilometres (30mi) west of Ascalon, Israel. "[60], When Alexander's empire collapsed after his death in 323 BC, the Phoenicians came under the control of the largest of its successors, the Seleucids. Details regarding the duties of these offices are sparse. In that function, some of them have slightly divergent forms: first singular /-n/ n and probably first plural /-nu()/. [32], The Canaanite culture that gave rise to the Phoenicians apparently developed in situ from the earlier Ghassulian chalcolithic culture. The results, published in the American Journal of Human Genetics, suggest that present-day Lebanese are direct descendants of the ancient Canaanites. However, the specifics of the role, or city defense, are unknown. Like for other Semitic languages, Phoenician verbs have different "verbal patterns" or "stems", expressing manner of action, level of transitivity and voice. The Phoenicians were not a nation in the political sense. Their name is derived from their main export: a rare purple dye. New Study Proves Lebanese Ancestry Is Mostly Phoenician - 961 Late Punic epigraphy. Free men of any class could represent themselves in court and had more rights than women and children, while slaves had no rights. [51] The Seleucids reclaimed the area the following century, holding it until the mid-first 2nd century BC. The murder of a commoner was treated as less severe than that of a nobleman, and the upper classes had the most rights; the wealthy often escaped punishment by paying a fine. The Phoenicians appear to have weathered the crisis relatively well, emerging as a distinct and organized civilization in 1230 BC. However, it is more plausible that Phoenician immigrants brought it to Crete,[109] whence it gradually diffused northwards. [104] The wealth and prosperity of all their city-states rested on foreign trade, which required good relations and a certain degree of mutual trust. [47], The Phoenicians developed several other maritime inventions. [115] At least one woman, Unmiashtart, is recorded to have ruled Sidon in the fifth century BC. The Phoenicians were long considered a lost civilization due to the lack of indigenous written records, and only since the mid-20th century have historians and archaeologists been able to reveal a complex and influential civilization. [62] When the Macedonians sought to appoint a new king over Sidon, the citizens nominated their candidate.[62]. [114] In most contexts, women were expected to dress and behave more modestly than men; female figures are almost always portrayed as clothed from head to feet, with the arms sometimes covered as well. ", Schmitz, Philip C. "Phoenician-Punic Grammar and Lexicography in the New Millennium. Their pronunciation can then be reconstructed somewhat differently: first-person singular /-iya()/ y, third-person singular masculine and feminine /-iyu()/ y and /-iya()/ y. ", "Long-lost Phoenician figurines could reveal secrets to ancient cult", Phoenician and the Phoenicians in the context of the Ancient Near East, BBC Radio4 In Our Time: The Phoenicians (audio archive), The quest for the Phoenicians in South Lebanon, "Phoenicia: An imaginary friend to nations in need of ancestors", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&oldid=1161912109, Bondi, S. F. 1988.
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